French romantics encouraged the repudiation of classical models.Walter Scott personified the romantic fascination with history.William Wordsworth was a leading figure of English romanticism.Britain was the first country where romanticism emerged fully in literature. ![]() Romantic historical studies promoted the growth of national aspirations.They broke with classicism’s rationality and order in favor of emotion.The Romantics focused on the spiritual and emotional life of the individual.Marx’s thinking built on the philosophy of Hegel.Marx was “the last of the classical economists,” influenced strongly by David Ricardo and his “iron law of wages.”.Karl Marx (1818–1883) predicted the proletariat (workers) would overthrow capitalists in a violent revolution.Important early socialists include Henri St.Socialism generally included the ideas of government planning of the economy (the Jacobin example), greater economic equality, and state regulation of property.Early nationalist stressed the differences among people.Most early nationalists believed that every nation had the right to exist in freedom and develop its character and spirit.In the early 1800s, nationalism was generally linked to liberal republican ideology.Much of “traditional” national culture was actually invented by nationalists.The rise of industrial and urban society required common culture and common language, leading to standardization in these areas.Nationalists sought to turn cultural unity into political unity and national independence.Nationalists argued that each people had their own mission and cultural unity.After 1815, liberalism came to be identified with the class interests of the capitalists.Liberalism faced more radical ideological competitors in the early nineteenth century.The principle ideas of liberalism, liberty and equality, were not defeated by the settlement of 1815.In his efforts to hold back liberalism and nationalism, Metternich was supported by the Russian Empire and, to a lesser extent, by the Ottoman Empire.As a leader of the Austrian Empire, which included many different nationalities, Metternich could only fear the rise of nationalism in Europe.Metternich came to symbolize the conservative reaction to the French Revolution.He believed liberalism had led to a generation of war and bloodshed.Metternich was born into the landed nobility of the Rhineland.Metternich’s Carlsbad Decrees required the members of the German Confederation to root out subversive ideas in their newspapers and universities.Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian foreign minister, organized the intervention of Austrian and French troops to destroy revolutionary governments in Spain and Sicily.Austria, Russia, and Prussia formed the Holy Alliance in 1815.Members of the Quadruple Alliance settled their own differences.At the Congress of Vienna (1815) Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria attempted to establish a balance of power in Europe.This is that story.◊ Listen to Chapter 23 (Houghton Mifflin Flash Player with closed captions) Thus, the early 19th century can be seen as the beginning of a more egalitarian Europe than had existed before. In some cases, governments responded violently, while in others, governments proved more receptive to change. In 1848, especially, oppressed people rose up against existing governmental systems and called for increased equality and rights. Most notably, Europe was rocked by a series of popular revolutions. And Romanticism, shunning the cold rationality of the Enlightenment, emphasized emotional reactions to events, which affected politics, art, literature, and music. Socialism, responding to the pressures of industrialization promised a world of communal cooperation and the elimination of class differences. ![]() Nationalism, which had been heightened by the Napoleonic Wars, emphasized self-identity and the consolidation of nationalities under a common government, often at the expense of existing empires. ![]() Classical liberalism, modeled on the United States and practiced with some success in France, promised more personal freedom and governments more responsive to the wishes of the people. Conservatism favored a return to hereditary monarchies with strong, and sometimes, absolute control over their people. The period from 1815 to 1850 was a time of competing ideologies, all of which promised a new Europe. Hereditary monarchies had fallen, new ideas had taken hold in France and spread throughout the continent, and the Industrial Revolution was beginning to change the lives of everyone. After the defeat of Napoleon, Europe was left in a real mess.
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